Is WeRecoverData Safe?

WeRecoverData Inc. was incorporated in New York on October 31, 2003, and is run by CEO Tal Hakim and Head of Engineering Tom Hakim. The company offers hard drive recovery, SSD recovery, RAID recovery, iPhone and mobile recovery, and forensic data retrieval services.

Tom Hakim was quoted as a forensic engineering source in coverage of the Imran Awan federal investigation, which confirms the company has performed real forensic work. WeRecoverData was cited as a third-party digital forensics provider in Benvenuto v. Brookman (CT Superior Court, 2021), a case available through Connecticut Judicial Branch case lookup. A separate breach-of-contract lawsuit (WeRecoverData.com, Inc. v eMag Solutions, LLC, NY Supreme Court, 2016) indicates the company operates referral arrangements with other entities.

The analysis below does not question whether WeRecoverData can recover data. It documents specific patterns in their marketing, pricing, terms of service, and technical claims using verified public sources.

WeRecoverData's homepage advertises "50+ Global Locations." All 22 addresses investigated across the US and Canada are virtual offices operated by Regus, WeWork, Intelligent Office, or similar coworking providers. Not one dedicated data recovery lab was found at any claimed address outside of a possible central facility in New York or Florida.

The "receptionist" referenced in the quote is a Regus or virtual office employee, not WeRecoverData staff. The instruction to "call us at 866-400-3282" routes to a central call center. Despite advertising local area codes for cities like Philadelphia (215-279-8454) and Houston (832-476-0517), the toll-free 866-400-3282 (866-400-DATA) is the operational backbone. The local numbers route to the same central call center.

The virtual office providers identified across the addresses investigated in March 2026 included Regus (Houston, Cleveland, Commerce CA, Fredericksburg VA, Milwaukee, San Diego, Toronto, Markham, Mississauga, Montreal), WeWork (Boston), and Industrious (Chicago). The 46 US locations WeRecoverData advertised in July 2026, and, for 45 of them, the company marketing office space at that address that month, are recorded row by row in the July 2026 survey linked below.

Google's official Business Profile policy states: "If your business rents a physical mailing address but doesn't operate out of that location, also known as a virtual office, that location isn't eligible for a Business Profile." A separate rule covers coworking spaces: businesses cannot list an office at a coworking space unless it "maintains clear signage, receives customers at the location during business hours, and is staffed during business hours by your business staff" (Google Business Profile guidelines). The addresses the March 2026 investigation identified are coworking and virtual-office suites; the signage, customer-reception, and staffing criteria in the second rule are the test a shared-office listing has to meet. WeRecoverData's virtual office addresses fail all three criteria.

What Does WeRecoverData's Austin Google Listing Say?

On July 25, 2026, the Google Business Profile listing for the Austin address WeRecoverData advertises displayed the name "WeRecoverData Data Recovery Inc. - Austin - Drop-Off", and its photo gallery displayed a graphic reading "Drop-Off only" with a second line reading "No Lab onsite." Google's gallery entry attributed the upload to "WeRecoverData" and dated the photo July 2026. That observation is recorded, with screenshots, in the July 26, 2026 letter published on the correspondence record. When we re-opened the listing's map link late on July 26, 2026, by following the link and reading the destination URL Google returned, it resolved under the name "WeRecoverData Data Recovery Inc. - Austin" again. A listing's name and photos can change at any time; each observation here carries its date.

The filmed July 12, 2026 visit above and the listing's own July 25, 2026 "No Lab onsite." graphic describe the same address. We draw no conclusion beyond what each dated record shows; open the listing, the footage, and the record, and compare.

How Many US Locations Did WeRecoverData Advertise in July 2026?

The March 2026 investigation described on this page covered 22 addresses across the US and Canada. A July 2026 survey, maintained by Louis Rossmann on his consumerrights.wiki userspace page with every row linked to its sources, recorded 46 advertised US locations on werecoverdata.com, one city page each. When we opened all 46 city pages on July 26, 2026, 45 of them listed the same phone number, 212-594-5946. The survey pairs each address with the company marketing office space there, links a filmed visit where one exists, and records where each location's Google Maps link pointed on July 26, 2026. The full table is on the survey page; our summary of it, the map-link record, and the filmed visits are on fake data recovery locations.

You can run the same check yourself on any data recovery company, ours included: open the company's own page for your city and note the street address, search that address to see who markets office space there, and open the company's Google Maps listing to see where the pin lands and whether it shows a street address at all. The step-by-step version is on fake data recovery locations. Rossmann Repair Group has one address, 2410 San Antonio Street, Austin, TX, and mail-in work is performed there.

DataRecoveryNJ, a verified data recovery professional, reported visiting WeRecoverData's New York City corporate headquarters: "I found the glass office you see in their picture but their name was not on the glass anymore."

WeRecoverData publishes no dollar amounts for any service on their website. All pages funnel to a phone call or contact form. Consumer reports on Reddit and the BBB document a consistent pattern: a $95 to $100 non-refundable diagnostic fee, followed by recovery quotes of $1,700 to $4,800 for standard hard drive recovery.

Consumer-Reported Price Tiers

One consumer (Reddit user drsgfire, September 2019) shared their full quote breakdown for a standard hard drive recovery:

“Economy Recovery $2,415.00 3-4 Weeks. Standard Recovery $3,450.00 7-9 Business Days. Priority Recovery $4,657.50 3-5 Business Days.”

Source: r/datarecovery (archived)

The same consumer reported receiving a template diagnosis that stated: "The drive was found to have internal damage and physical problems." They noted the drive had never been opened and the manufacturer sticker was in perfect condition.

$4,800 Quote for 1TB Clicking Drive

In February 2024, Reddit user dcheeseater reported sending a 1TB WD external drive that started clicking to WeRecoverData:

“They said $100 up front and no charge at all if data not recovered. I was told by a local computer tech it would be $500-$800 or so... Only $4800 to have it done in a week or so, no return media provided, extra charge for online access to the data.”

Source: r/datarecovery (archived)

For context: a 1TB clicking WD external drive typically requires a head swap. At Rossmann Repair Group, head swap recovery is priced at $1,200–$1,500 plus donor drive cost. That's the same procedure, same tools (PC-3000, clean bench, donor heads), for a fraction of the $4,800 quoted above.

$1,700 for Apple SSD Recovery

In May 2021, a Reddit user reported:

“They charged their $100 diagnostic fee, just to quote me over $1,700 for the recovery! When I declined the recovery, they charged me another $40 just to mail the stuff back to me via USPS (which costs about $6).”

Source: r/datarecovery (archived)

Additional Consumer Pricing Reports

The terms of service clauses below are quoted from the contract language displayed by WeRecoverData's online quote and evaluation system (secure.werecoverdata.com), as it appeared on an example quote page we reviewed for this analysis in March 2026. The same page was still displaying on July 12, 2026, when its success-definition clause was screenshotted for the correspondence record. When we re-opened that page's URL (secure.werecoverdata.com/EvaluationResults.aspx?id=96f78940-4646-41eb-bd64-dd8090d6aed7) on July 26, 2026, it returned "Evaluation Results and Authorization Invalid Id or form is inactive"; per-case quote pages expire. The BBB complaints quoted below, with their dollar amounts, document related billing and custody conduct: an estimate fee, an unexplained card charge, a deposit, a return-shipping condition on getting a device back, and an expedited-services charge.

$2,500 Non-Refundable R&D Fee

“R&D Fee: $2,500.00 For certain cases, our Research & Development team will be required to develop a custom recovery solution... the R&D fee is a non-refundable, upfront fee that is in-addition to the cost of recovery.”

This fee is charged before recovery begins and is non-refundable regardless of outcome. It is in addition to the recovery quote.

Source: secure.werecoverdata.com/EvaluationResults.aspx?id=96f78940-4646-41eb-bd64-dd8090d6aed7 (live WeRecoverData quote showing this clause)

50% Cancellation Penalty

“If client discovers an alternate means of recovering their data... WeRecoverData.com will be owed one half of the recovery fee for services performed by WeRecoverData.com prior to the cancellation of the contract.”

Cancelling after the process starts incurs a penalty of half the total recovery fee, regardless of whether any data was recovered.

"Any Files Recovered = Success"

“If client didn't specify the exact critical files that need to be recovered, or indicated 'all', 'everything' or 'unknown', we will consider the recovery to be successful if any files on the media are recovered.”

Under this definition, recovering a single system file from a 4TB drive qualifies as "successful" and triggers full billing.

5-Day Silence = Automatic Full Billing

“When the success of a recovery is in question and we have not received a response from you within 5 business days - we will consider the recovery successful and payment will be processed in full.”

If you miss an email or are traveling, your credit card is charged the full recovery fee automatically.

24-Hour Media Destruction Window

“Please allow us 24 hours to close your case and prepare your media for shipment or pickup. Alternatively, we can recycle the property.”

The company reserves the right to destroy your storage media 24 hours after closing your case.

$30/Month Admin Fee + 30% Collection Surcharge

“If the account remains in default, a $30 administration fee will be applied each month... If the case account remains in default for more than 60 days, the balance due will be submitted to collection and accrue 30% in collection fees and 2% per month in interest...”

BBB Complaints Confirming These Patterns

“$95 fee for an estimate. $250 mysterious charge on my credit card. 50% deposit contingent on a successful recovery, a little over $1000 charged. Claimed a 2 week turnaround, took them 6 weeks and multiple emails by me to get an update. Recovery was unsuccessful, they will scrap my device unless I pay $65 for return shipping. 4 weeks after the last contact they still haven't refunded my deposit.”

“I filled out a request for remote data recovery, and was charged 1000 dollars for 'expedited services'.”

Social Security Number Retention

WeRecoverData's privacy policy, as archived March 29, 2026 (the policy text carries a last-modified date of May 15, 2013), stated:

“After a transaction, your private information (credit cards, social security numbers, financials, etc.) will be kept on file for more than 60 days in order to fulfill payment plan options.”

Source: werecoverdata.com/company/privacy-policyView archived privacy policy

The archive.org snapshot above no longer displays: werecoverdata.com's robots.txt blocks the Internet Archive's crawlers (checked July 27, 2026), and the Wayback Machine applies that block to captures that were previously public. The archive.org link is kept for the record. See the note on these archived sources.

The New York SHIELD Act (effective March 2020) requires reasonable safeguards and timely disposal of private information. Retaining Social Security numbers for 60+ days under a policy unchanged since 2013 raises questions about compliance with current data protection requirements.

WeRecoverData's website contains technical claims that contradict established hardware engineering. These include a fabricated chip-off recovery on an iPhone 14 Pro Max (Secure Enclave makes this impossible), dangerous advice to run CHKDSK on physically damaged drives, claims of recovering data from passcode-disabled iPhones, and false assurances about overwritten RAID arrays.

Each entry below includes the verbatim quote from their website, the source URL displayed as text, an archive.org permanent link, and an engineering correction.

Can you perform chip-off recovery on an iPhone 14 Pro Max?

1The Claim

“At this stage, engineers determined that chip-off data recovery offered the best path forward. To retrieve the data, our specialists carefully removed the NAND memory chip from the damaged logic board... They then used specialized hardware designed for direct memory access to read the raw data from the NAND flash. Once the extraction was complete, the team rebuilt the iOS file system and reconstructed the user data structure.”

Source: werecoverdata.com/data-recovery-stories/data-recovery-of-620gb-after-iphone-14-pro-max-suffers-moisture-damage-in-rogersville-tennessee (live page; may differ from the archived text quoted above)View archived source

The archive.org snapshot above no longer displays: werecoverdata.com's robots.txt blocks the Internet Archive's crawlers (checked July 27, 2026), and the Wayback Machine applies that block to captures that were previously public. The archive.org link is kept for the record. See the note on these archived sources.

2The Reality

The iPhone 14 Pro Max uses the A16 Bionic SoC with a dedicated Secure Enclave coprocessor. Every byte on the NAND is encrypted with AES-256 keys that never leave the Secure Enclave. This case study describes removing the NAND chip and reading it standalone with "direct memory access" hardware. A standalone NAND read from any iPhone 5s or later produces AES-256 ciphertext; without the original functioning SoC that holds the decryption keys, the raw dump is indistinguishable from random noise. Board-level transplant (moving the NAND and SoC together to a working board) is a different procedure, and the case study does not describe that. "Rebuilding the iOS file system" from a standalone NAND dump of a Secure Enclave device is not possible. The claimed procedure cannot produce the stated result.

Consequence: Publishing a fabricated case study claiming successful chip-off on a Secure Enclave device misleads consumers into believing an impossible recovery was performed. Anyone who ships a passcode-locked iPhone expecting this result will lose their money.

Should you run CHKDSK on a drive that might be physically damaged?

1The Claim

“Your hard disk drive might be damaged... You need to run the chkdsk option to detect and fix data problems automatically.”

Source: werecoverdata.com/blog/effective-strategies-hard-drive-slows (live page; may differ from the archived text quoted above)View archived source

The archive.org snapshot above no longer displays: werecoverdata.com's robots.txt blocks the Internet Archive's crawlers (checked July 27, 2026), and the Wayback Machine applies that block to captures that were previously public. The archive.org link is kept for the record. See the note on these archived sources.

2The Reality

CHKDSK forces a full surface scan that thrashes a dying actuator arm across every sector. On a drive with physical damage, the sustained mechanical stress generates heat that pushes degraded read/write heads into contact with the platter surface, scoring the magnetic coating and destroying the data tracks underneath. CHKDSK also severs directory links, truncates partially unreadable files, and orphans data into .chk fragments. A data recovery lab imaging this drive afterward will find physically destroyed sectors where recoverable data used to exist.

Consequence: A customer who follows this advice on a physically failing drive will convert a recoverable head failure into permanent platter damage, destroying data that a lab could otherwise have imaged.

Can you chip-off modern encrypted smartphones and read plaintext data?

1The Claim

“We can disassemble the phone memory chip and read its data using our proprietary methods... WeRecoverData can recover deleted text messages, pictures, videos, phone call information, and more from mobile devices.”

Source: werecoverdata.com/services/cellphone-recovery (live page; may differ from the archived text quoted above)View archived source

The archive.org snapshot above no longer displays: werecoverdata.com's robots.txt blocks the Internet Archive's crawlers (checked July 27, 2026), and the Wayback Machine applies that block to captures that were previously public. The archive.org link is kept for the record. See the note on these archived sources.

2The Reality

This claim does not specify which phones or acknowledge encryption. On older devices manufactured before default encryption (pre-2013 iPhones, many pre-2015 Android phones), standalone chip-off works because storage is unencrypted plaintext. On any iPhone 5s or later and most Android devices since Android 6.0 (2015), storage is encrypted with hardware-backed keys tied to the SoC. Removing only the NAND chip from an encrypted phone and reading it standalone produces ciphertext, not recoverable files. Board-level transplant, where the NAND and SoC are moved together to a working donor board, is a viable recovery path for encrypted devices with physical board damage. The phrasing "disassemble the phone memory chip and read its data" reads as standalone chip removal, but the page makes no distinction between encrypted and unencrypted devices.

Consequence: The claim makes no distinction between encrypted and unencrypted devices. A consumer with a modern encrypted smartphone reading this page has no way to know that standalone chip-off will not produce readable files from their device.

Can any lab recover data from a passcode-disabled iPhone?

1The Claim

“The phone isn't accessible due to multiple Passcode retries... Device Disabled... Forgotten Passcode”

Source: werecoverdata.com/services/iphone-data-recovery (live page; may differ from the archived text quoted above)View archived source

The archive.org snapshot above no longer displays: werecoverdata.com's robots.txt blocks the Internet Archive's crawlers (checked July 27, 2026), and the Wayback Machine applies that block to captures that were previously public. The archive.org link is kept for the record. See the note on these archived sources.

2The Reality

On iPhones 5s through X (A7 through A11 chips), forensic extraction tools such as Cellebrite UFED and GrayKey can exploit the checkm8 bootrom vulnerability to extract data from passcode-locked and disabled devices. These tools cost $15,000 to $30,000+ and are sold primarily to law enforcement agencies. On A12 and later devices (iPhone XS and newer) running current iOS, no publicly known tool can bypass the Secure Enclave. WeRecoverData is a data recovery lab, not a mobile forensics lab, and does not advertise Cellebrite, GrayKey, or any forensic extraction capability on their site. Listing "Forgotten Passcode" and "Device Disabled" as recoverable scenarios without specifying which models or what tooling is required misleads consumers into expecting a capability WeRecoverData has not demonstrated.

Consequence: Consumers with passcode-locked A12+ iPhones (XS and newer) who pay WeRecoverData for recovery will receive nothing; no known commercial tool bypasses Secure Enclave on these devices. Older models have forensic extraction paths through Cellebrite-equipped providers, but WeRecoverData does not advertise this capability.

Can data be recovered after a RAID array is re-striped, formatted, and overwritten?

1The Claim

“We re-striped/re-initialized the RAID array, formatted the array and copied data back to it. Is there a chance of recovering the data? It's still possible to recover the data on these cases.”

Source: werecoverdata.com/services/data-recovery-services/raid-data-recovery (live page; may differ from the archived text quoted above)View archived source

The archive.org snapshot above no longer displays: werecoverdata.com's robots.txt blocks the Internet Archive's crawlers (checked July 27, 2026), and the Wayback Machine applies that block to captures that were previously public. The archive.org link is kept for the record. See the note on these archived sources.

2The Reality

Re-initializing a RAID array overwrites superblock metadata, partition tables, and inode structures on every member drive. Formatting writes a new, blank file system over whatever survived. Copying new data back writes user data over the physical sectors where original data existed. The source page omits a critical qualifier from its own answer: "It will depend on the RAID controller's functionality and how much data was copied to the array." Sectors that received new writes are gone. Sectors that were not overwritten may retain original data, but without intact array metadata, recovery requires individual drive imaging, manual stripe reassembly, and file carving. The framing "It's still possible" understates how destructive each step is and omits the severe reduction in both completeness and file-system integrity.

Consequence: A customer who re-initializes, formats, and writes new data to a RAID array has destroyed array metadata and overwritten an unknown portion of original sectors. Recovery of unoverwritten sectors is theoretically possible but requires manual stripe reconstruction and produces fragmented results with no guarantee of file-system integrity.

WeRecoverData's data security page lists certifications that are either superseded, mischaracterized, or unrelated to data recovery. Their homepage advertises "30+ Years Experience" despite incorporating in 2003. Their title tags advertise a 96% success rate while their own FAQ page states they refuse to publish success rates.

96% Success Rate vs. FAQ Denial

WeRecoverData's location page title tags include: "WeRecoverData | World's Leading Data Recovery Experts | 96% Success Rate." Their FAQ page states: "We do not publish the success rate in order not mislead our customers due to false claims made by other small data recovery providers."

Both statements exist on the same website. No methodology, sample size, or third-party audit is provided for the 96% figure. For comparison, SalvageData claims 96.7% and SecureData claims 96%, none with published methodology.

Title tag advertising 96% success rate:

FAQ page denying they publish success rates:

SSAE16/SOC 2 Claim

The data security page states: "SSAE16 (Formerly SAS 70) SOC2 Type II and SOC 3 Audited and Certified." SSAE16 was superseded by SSAE18 in 2017. No auditing CPA firm, certificate number, or audit date is provided anywhere on the site.

FIPS 140 Mischaracterization

The data security page claims: "NIST The National Institute of Standard and Technology - FIPS 140-2 Validation Certificate. Validated 140-2 and 140-3 Cryptographic Modules." NIST FIPS 140 certifies specific cryptographic modules (hardware and software products), not companies. A corporate entity cannot be "FIPS Validated."

Unrelated Industry Certifications

The data security page also lists ICSA Labs (certifies firewall products), VPNC (tests VPN interoperability), and Return Path (email deliverability certification). None of these relate to data recovery.

Individual Certifications Without Named Holders

The page claims: "Our certifications include Certified Computer Examiner (CCE), Microsoft Certified Professional (MCP), Encase Certified Examiner (EnCE), and Certified Hacking Forensic Investigator (CHFI)." These are personal certifications granted to named individuals who pass examinations. No individual is named as holding any of them. Microsoft retired the MCP program in 2021.

"30+ Years Experience" vs. 2003 Incorporation

WeRecoverData's homepage displays "30+ Years Experience" in its statistics banner alongside "50+ Global Locations." WeRecoverData Inc. was incorporated October 31, 2003, making the entity approximately 23 years old as of 2026. The "30+" figure likely counts pre-incorporation founder experience without disclosing that the company itself is younger than claimed.

CBS News "Feature" Context

WeRecoverData markets a CBS News feature. The actual article ("Easy Ways to Back Up Your Computer," Brian Dakss, July 24, 2006) contains a single sentence: "Yet another backup possibility: data recovery services, such as WeRecoverData.com." Marketing a passing mention as a feature overstates the coverage.

Equipment Transparency

WeRecoverData's website names zero specific data recovery equipment. No PC-3000, no DeepSpar, no manufacturer tools of any kind. The site references only "proprietary tools" and "proprietary methods." Their YouTube channel contains no technical recovery content showing actual lab work or equipment.

WeRecoverData's ratings diverge sharply across platforms. Moderated platforms where reviewers provide identity verification show poor ratings. Loosely moderated platforms show high ratings.

ReviewFraud.org Flagged California Listings

ReviewFraud.org cataloged WeRecoverData's San Jose (2880 Zanker Rd #203) and San Diego (350 Tenth Ave) Google listings on its "California Businesses with Fake Reviews" list.

FTC Rule on Fake Reviews (October 2024)

FTC Rule 16 CFR Part 465 (effective October 21, 2024) prohibits creating fake reviews, suppressing negative reviews, and operating deceptive company-controlled review platforms. Penalties are up to $53,088 per violation. This rule does not name WeRecoverData; it applies industry-wide.

What Records Did Investigator Kay Dean Provide About WeRecoverData Listings?

Kay Dean, a former federal criminal investigator whose fake-review research has been credited by the New York Attorney General and covered by the New York Times and NBC Bay Area, provided us in July 2026 with captures from 2019 and 2020 concerning review-exchange activity and WeRecoverData listings. Among them is Yelp's own consumer-alerts history page showing a “Suspicious Activity” alert on WeRecoverData's New York listing from February 3 to May 3, 2020, since marked Inactive. Her records, her conclusions in her own words, and what the records do and do not establish are published here: Kay Dean's WeRecoverData findings.

What Do Consumers and Professionals Report?

Consumer complaints on the BBB and Trustpilot, combined with assessments from verified data recovery professionals on Reddit, document a consistent pattern of pricing escalation, non-refundable fees, and drives withheld pending payment.

“They are unresponsive and don't care about you. Lost my disc... Obviously they lost the hard disc, I have asked 3 times to just refund me the upfront charge of $95.00. DO NOT deal with this company!”

“Firstly, they are NOT local. They take your device, and ship it across the country. On your dollar... holding it hostage until I gave them more money for zero service.”

Data Recovery Professional Consensus

Verified data recovery professionals on Reddit's r/datarecovery and r/AskADataRecoveryPro uniformly classify WeRecoverData as a marketing-driven operation. They group it alongside PITS Global and Secure Data Recovery as companies that project nationwide presence through virtual offices while operating from centralized facilities.

“They are known for bait and switch pricing, gratuitous overcharging, increasing the bill in the middle of a job, and strongly suspected of sabotaging drives when customers decline their quote.”

Consumer reports on the BBB and Trustpilot document drives lost, withheld pending payment, and threatened with destruction under the company's 24-hour media destruction clause. The privacy policy, as archived March 29, 2026, stated that private information including Social Security numbers, credit card numbers, and financials is kept on file for more than 60 days after a transaction.

• Drive reported lost: Trustpilot reviewer David Geller reported his disc was lost and the company was unresponsive to three refund requests for the $95 diagnostic fee.
• Drive withheld pending payment: Trustpilot reviewer Fish Garrett described the drive being held "hostage" pending additional payment after the company shipped it across the country without disclosure.

How Does WeRecoverData Pricing Compare?

WeRecoverData publishes no dollar amounts. Consumer reports document recovery quotes from $1,700 to $4,800 for standard hard drives, plus a $95 to $100 non-refundable diagnostic fee. Rossmann Repair Group publishes five fixed pricing tiers starting at $100 for HDD and $200 for SSD, with no diagnostic fee and a no-data-no-fee guarantee.

WeRecoverData pricing from independent consumer reports on Reddit and BBB (2019-2024). Rossmann pricing from published tiers. WeRecoverData does not publish pricing on their website.

How Do the Two Companies Compare Operationally?

Both WeRecoverData and Rossmann Repair Group handle hard drive, SSD, and RAID recovery. The operational differences center on pricing transparency, fee structure, complaint history, and how local presence is represented to consumers.

To compare professional data recovery alternatives in more detail, see our dedicated comparison page.

Questions about WeRecoverData focus on whether the company is legitimate, how much recovery costs, whether their 50+ locations are real, what their BBB rating means, and how their pricing compares to labs that publish fixed tiers.